Aesthetics and Interconnectedness of the Daśa-rūpakas, Upa-rūpakas, and Nṛtya Traditions - Part 6

Chalika, cillī, cillikā, cillī-karma, or cillī-mārga – Abhinava-gupta defines this as a kind of upa-rūpaka rooted in śuddha-nṛtta – pure, non-representational dance. This resembles ḍòmbi in its form and is, perhaps, another name of calika/chalika or chalitaka mentioned by Kālidāsa in Mālavikāgnimitram.  Vātsyāyana also describes a similar form as a part of the list of sixty-four arts in his Kāma-sūtraChalika can be considered an ancestor of śṛṅgāra-rasābhinaya of pada and jāvaḻis that is in practice today – usually, vipralambha-śṛṅgāra is the dominant emotion and is an ekāhārya-nṛtya. Vātsyāyana also documents eka-pātrābhinaya (mono-acting) and vividha-vinoda-veṣa-dhāraṇa (fancy dress), which are simple theatrical activities. Abhinava-gupta’s definition more or less matches with these forms; it may also be said to be a stage activity meant to entertain and engage the lay.  Rājaśekhara too describes many forms of dance that bear semblance to this.

Nāṭikā – Female characters dominate this genre of upa-rūpaka, which is designed to have four acts. The activities of the antaḥpura (harem) form the main theme of the play.  The story usually depicts a romantic king who falls in love with a beautiful girl in his queen's harem; the girl is usually a princess, who is disguised as a dāsī, serving in the harem; the king, who is sacred of his queen, engages in secret rendezvous with his new love; the story ends on a happy note; kaiśikī-vṛtti dominates this play.  Kālidāsa's Mālavikāgnimitram, though popularly classified as a nāṭaka, has all the features of a nāṭikā – it can be considered the first work of the genre.[1]  Many plays have been modelled upon the Mālavikāgnimitram.  Śrī-harṣa's Ratnāvalī and Priyadarśikā as well as Rājaśekhara's Viddha-śāla-bhañjikā are amongst the popular examples.

Toṭaka or troṭaka – This genre of upa-rūpaka usually consists of five to nine acts; the story is centred around divine or semi-divine characters and vidūṣaka comes as a part of every act; śṛṅgāra is the predominant emotion.  Kālidāsa’s Vikramorvaśīyam is said to be the only available example for this genre.  However, Vikramorvaśīyam does not seem to possess all the characteristics of a troṭaka.  Moreover, none of the treatises appear to help us in adequately differentiating between nāṭaka and nāṭikā on one hand and troṭaka on the other; in other words, troṭaka is similar to nāṭaka and nāṭikā; thus, the existence of a separate genre called troṭaka is almost questionable, as clear definitions and examples are not available

Saṭṭaka or sāṭaka – This genre largely resembles nāṭikā in all of its features, except for the language; the drama is full of Prakrit only; the acts do not have praveśakas and viṣkambhakas. Rājaśekhara’s Karpūra-mañjarī is one of the popular examples of this genre.

Preṅkhaṇa – This genre of upa-rūpaka is devoid of sūtradhāra and arthopakṣepas. All vṛttis are presented in a single act and the story revolves around a nīca-nāyaka – an ignoble hero.

Śilpaka – This upa-rūpaka is presented in four acts and all four vṛttis can be effectively employed. The presentation is devoid of hāsya and śṛṅgāra rasas. A brāhmaṇa is the nāyaka and an ignoble person is the upa-nāyaka; śmaśāna (crematorium/ grave yard) are portrayed in the play as well.

Sāṃlāpaka – This upa-rūpaka is structured in three or four acts and has a pāṣaṇḍa (a kind of heretic) as the nāyaka; all rasas other than śṛṅgāra and karuṇa may occur in the play. The presentation is filled with wars, calamities, and difficulties; ārabhaṭī and sāttvatī vṛttis reign supreme.

Vilāsika – This is a special kind of play where all lāsyāṅgas can be creatively brough in.  A vilāsikā consists of only one act – viṭa, vidūṣaka, and pīṭhamarda are the important characters and a nīca-nāyaka invariably comes as a part of the play.  Though, less in variety, āhārya is exuberant in vilāsika.

Prakaraṇikā – The genre of the daśa-rūpaka called the prakaraṇa seems to metamorphose into prakaraṇikā by the usage of Prakrit throughout the play.  No aesthetician has thrown much light on this genre. This is, perhaps, a deśī form of the mārga-prakaraṇa.

Mallikā – This largely resembles durmilikā (also called durmīlikā).  The story stretches into one or two acts.  Kaiśikī-vṛtti plays a dominant role and is expressed through music and dance.  Viṭa and vidūṣaka form the primary characters.

KalpavallīŚṛṅgāra-rasa dominates this presentation.  The play is centred around an udātta-nāyaka and may have the character of a pīṭhamardaka as well. The nāyikā is a vāsakasajjikā or an abhisārikā.  The play provides immense opportunity for the play of rhythm to accompany lāsyaKalpavallī appears to be a beautiful nṛtya-prabandha.

PārijātakaVīra-rasa is the undercurrent of this genre of play, where the deeds of a deva or a kṣatriya are delineated.  Kalahāntaritā and other kinds of nāyikās are presented along with references to prostitutes. Daṇḍa-rāsaka and other forms of dance may accompany the presentation

The discussion so far was been based on nāṭyaśāstric treatises. Authors including Bharata, Abhinava-gupta, Bhoja, Dhanañjaya, Śāradā-tanaya, Viśvanātha, Rāmacandra-Guṇacandra, Siṃha-bhūpāla, and Sāgara-nandī have been referred to.[2]  Treatises on saṅgīta[3] composed after the times of Śārṅgadeva (12th – 13th Century CE) also contain many details connected with theatrical presentations.  As mentioned earlier in the essay, most of these are, in fact, compositions and choreographies of dance. Let us know take a brief look at their forms and varieties.  It will help us understand the interrelation between the daśa-rūpakas, upa-rūpakas, and the nṛtya-nṛtta prabandhas. We shall also examine if these genres can be adequately distinguished from one another.

To be continued...
This series of articles is authored by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh and have been rendered into English with additional material and footnotes by Arjun Bharadwaj. The article first appeared in the second edition of the anthology Prekṣaṇīyaṃ, published by the Prekshaa Pratishtana in December 2022.


[1] In the paper ‘Mālavikāgnimitra – A nāṭikā?’ Śatāvadhānī Dr. R. Ganesh undertakes a detailed study of nāṭikā; he has established that the play is a nāṭikā not just in essence but also in its structure.  The paper was published in the quarterly journal of Mythic Society, Bangalore in 1988

[2] Original works have been consulted by Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh and verified in parallel with experience. In addition, the works of Dr. V Raghavan have been extremely helpful. Those interested in detailed study may find it worthwhile to go through the following works of Dr. V Raghavan – Sanskrit Drama: Its Aesthetics and Production, and Splendours of Indian Dance

[3] Here, the term saṅgīta refers to vocal music (with lyrics), instrumental music, and dance; both representational and non-representational forms of dance are included. Thus, treatises on saṅgīta-śāstra contain chapters on all these forms of art.

 

Author(s)

About:

Dr. Ganesh is a 'shatavadhani' and one of India’s foremost Sanskrit poets and scholars. He writes and lectures extensively on various subjects pertaining to India and Indian cultural heritage. He is a master of the ancient art of avadhana and is credited with reviving the art in Kannada. He is a recipient of the Badarayana-Vyasa Puraskar from the President of India for his contribution to the Sanskrit language.

Translator(s)

About:

Arjun is a writer, translator, engineer, and enjoys composing poems. He is well-versed in Sanskrit, Kannada, English, Greek, and German languages. His research interests lie in comparative aesthetics of classical Greek and Sanskrit literature. He has deep interest in the theatre arts and music. Arjun has (co-) translated the works of AR Krishna Shastri, DV Gundappa, Dr. SL Bhyrappa, Dr. SR Ramaswamy and Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh

Prekshaa Publications

Among the many contributions of ancient Indians to world thought, perhaps the most insightful is the realisation that ānanda (Bliss) is the ultimate goal of human existence. Since time immemorial, India has been a land steeped in contemplation about the nature of humans and the universe. The great ṛṣis (seers) and ṛṣikās (seeresses) embarked on critical analysis of subjective experience and...

One of the two great epics of India and arguably the most popular epic in the world, the Ramayana has enchanted generations of people not just in Greater India but the world over. In less than three hundred pages The Essential Ramayana captures all the poetic subtleties and noble values of the original and offers the great epic in an eminently readable form that will appeal to the learned and...

The Bhagavad-gītā isn’t merely a treatise on ultimate liberation. It is also a treatise on good living. Even the laity, which does not have its eye on mokṣa, can immensely benefit from the Gītā. It has the power to grant an attitude of reverence in worldly life, infuse enthusiasm in the execution of duty, impart fortitude in times of adversity, and offer solace to the heart when riddled by...

Indian Perspective of Truth and Beauty in Homer’s Epics is a unique work on the comparative study of the Greek Epics Iliad and Odyssey with the Indian Epics – Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. Homer, who laid the foundations for the classical tradition of the West, occupies a stature similar to that occupied by the seer-poets Vālmīki and Vyāsa, who are synonymous with the Indian culture. The author...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the sixth volume of reminiscences character sketches of prominent public figures, liberals, and social workers. These remarkable personages hailing from different corners of South India are from a period that spans from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. Written in Kannada in the 1970s, these memoirs go...

An Introduction to Hinduism based on Primary Sources

Authors: Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh, Hari Ravikumar

What is the philosophical basis for Sanātana-dharma, the ancient Indian way of life? What makes it the most inclusive and natural of all religio-philosophical systems in the world?

The Essential Sanātana-dharma serves as a handbook for anyone who wishes to grasp the...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fifth volume, episodes from the lives of traditional savants responsible for upholding the Vedic culture. These memorable characters lived a life of opulence amidst poverty— theirs  was the wealth of the soul, far beyond money and gold. These vidvāns hailed from different corners of the erstwhile Mysore Kingdom and lived in...

Padma Bhushan Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam represents the quintessence of Sage Bharata’s art and Bhārata, the country that gave birth to the peerless seer of the Nāṭya-veda. Padma’s erudition in various streams of Indic knowledge, mastery over many classical arts, deep understanding of the nuances of Indian culture, creative genius, and sublime vision bolstered by the vedāntic and nationalistic...

Bhārata has been a land of plenty in many ways. We have had a timeless tradition of the twofold principle of Brāhma (spirit of wisdom) and Kṣāttra (spirit of valour) nourishing and protecting this sacred land. The Hindu civilisation, rooted in Sanātana-dharma, has constantly been enriched by brāhma and safeguarded by kṣāttra.
The renowned Sanskrit poet and scholar, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R...

ಛಂದೋವಿವೇಕವು ವರ್ಣವೃತ್ತ, ಮಾತ್ರಾಜಾತಿ ಮತ್ತು ಕರ್ಷಣಜಾತಿ ಎಂದು ವಿಭಕ್ತವಾದ ಎಲ್ಲ ಬಗೆಯ ಛಂದಸ್ಸುಗಳನ್ನೂ ವಿವೇಚಿಸುವ ಪ್ರಬಂಧಗಳ ಸಂಕಲನ. ಲೇಖಕರ ದೀರ್ಘಕಾಲಿಕ ಆಲೋಚನೆಯ ಸಾರವನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡ ಈ ಹೊತ್ತಗೆ ಪ್ರಧಾನವಾಗಿ ಛಂದಸ್ಸಿನ ಸೌಂದರ್ಯವನ್ನು ಲಕ್ಷಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ತೌಲನಿಕ ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಶಾಸ್ತ್ರೀಯ ಅಧ್ಯಯನಗಳ ತೆಕ್ಕೆಗೆ ಬರುವ ಬರೆಹಗಳೂ ಇಲ್ಲಿವೆ. ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರಕಾರನಿಗಲ್ಲದೆ ಸಿದ್ಧಹಸ್ತನಾದ ಕವಿಗೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ಸ್ಫುರಿಸಬಲ್ಲ ಎಷ್ಟೋ ಹೊಳಹುಗಳು ಕೃತಿಯ ಮೌಲಿಕತೆಯನ್ನು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿಸಿವೆ. ಈ...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fourth volume, some character sketches of the Dewans of Mysore preceded by an account of the political framework of the State before Independence and followed by a review of the political conditions of the State after 1940. These remarkable leaders of Mysore lived in a period that spans from the mid-nineteenth century to the...

Bharatiya Kavya-mimamseya Hinnele is a monograph on Indian Aesthetics by Mahamahopadhyaya N. Ranganatha Sharma. The book discusses the history and significance of concepts pivotal to Indian literary theory. It is equally useful to the learned and the laity.

Sahitya-samhite is a collection of literary essays in Kannada. The book discusses aestheticians such as Ananda-vardhana and Rajashekhara; Sanskrit scholars such as Mena Ramakrishna Bhat, Sridhar Bhaskar Varnekar and K S Arjunwadkar; and Kannada litterateurs such as DVG, S L Bhyrappa and S R Ramaswamy. It has a foreword by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh.

The Mahābhārata is the greatest epic in the world both in magnitude and profundity. A veritable cultural compendium of Bhārata-varṣa, it is a product of the creative genius of Maharṣi Kṛṣṇa-dvaipāyana Vyāsa. The epic captures the experiential wisdom of our civilization and all subsequent literary, artistic, and philosophical creations are indebted to it. To read the Mahābhārata is to...

Shiva Rama Krishna

சிவன். ராமன். கிருஷ்ணன்.
இந்திய பாரம்பரியத்தின் முப்பெரும் கதாநாயகர்கள்.
உயர் இந்தியாவில் தலைமுறைகள் பல கடந்தும் கடவுளர்களாக போற்றப்பட்டு வழிகாட்டிகளாக விளங்குபவர்கள்.
மனித ஒற்றுமை நூற்றாண்டுகால பரிணாம வளர்ச்சியின் பரிமாணம்.
தனிநபர்களாகவும், குடும்ப உறுப்பினர்களாகவும், சமுதாய பிரஜைகளாகவும் நாம் அனைவரும் பரிமளிக்கிறோம்.
சிவன் தனிமனித அடையாளமாக அமைகிறான்....

ऋतुभिः सह कवयः सदैव सम्बद्धाः। विशिष्य संस्कृतकवयः। यथा हि ऋतवः प्रतिसंवत्सरं प्रतिनवतामावहन्ति मानवेषु तथैव ऋतुवर्णनान्यपि काव्यरसिकेषु कामपि विच्छित्तिमातन्वते। ऋतुकल्याणं हि सत्यमिदमेव हृदि कृत्वा प्रवृत्तम्। नगरजीवनस्य यान्त्रिकतां मान्त्रिकतां च ध्वनदिदं चम्पूकाव्यं गद्यपद्यमिश्रितमिति सुव्यक्तमेव। ऐदम्पूर्वतया प्रायः पुरीपरिसरप्रसृतानाम् ऋतूनां विलासोऽत्र प्रपञ्चितः। बेङ्गलूरुनामके...

The Art and Science of Avadhānam in Sanskrit is a definitive work on Sāhityāvadhānam, a form of Indian classical art based on multitasking, lateral thinking, and extempore versification. Dotted throughout with tasteful examples, it expounds in great detail on the theory and practice of this unique performing art. It is as much a handbook of performance as it is an anthology of well-turned...

This anthology is a revised edition of the author's 1978 classic. This series of essays, containing his original research in various fields, throws light on the socio-cultural landscape of Tamil Nadu spanning several centuries. These compelling episodes will appeal to scholars and laymen alike.
“When superstitious mediaevalists mislead the country about its judicial past, we have to...

The cultural history of a nation, unlike the customary mainstream history, has a larger time-frame and encompasses the timeless ethos of a society undergirding the course of events and vicissitudes. A major key to the understanding of a society’s unique character is an appreciation of the far-reaching contributions by outstanding personalities of certain periods – especially in the realms of...

Prekṣaṇīyam is an anthology of essays on Indian classical dance and theatre authored by multifaceted scholar and creative genius, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh. As a master of śāstra, a performing artiste (of the ancient art of Avadhānam), and a cultured rasika, he brings a unique, holistic perspective to every discussion. These essays deal with the philosophy, history, aesthetics, and practice of...

Yaugandharam

इदं किञ्चिद्यामलं काव्यं द्वयोः खण्डकाव्ययोः सङ्कलनरूपम्। रामानुरागानलं हि सीतापरित्यागाल्लक्ष्मणवियोगाच्च श्रीरामेणानुभूतं हृदयसङ्क्षोभं वर्णयति । वात्सल्यगोपालकं तु कदाचिद्भानूपरागसमये घटितं यशोदाश्रीकृष्णयोर्मेलनं वर्णयति । इदम्प्रथमतया संस्कृतसाहित्ये सम्पूर्णं काव्यं...

Vanitakavitotsavah

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Vaiphalyaphalam

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Nipunapraghunakam

इयं रचना दशसु रूपकेष्वन्यतमस्य भाणस्य निदर्शनतामुपैति। एकाङ्करूपकेऽस्मिन् शेखरकनामा चित्रोद्यमलेखकः केनापि हेतुना वियोगम् अनुभवतोश्चित्रलेखामिलिन्दकयोः समागमं सिसाधयिषुः कथामाकाशभाषणरूपेण निर्वहति।

Bharavatarastavah

अस्मिन् स्तोत्रकाव्ये भगवन्तं शिवं कविरभिष्टौति। वसन्ततिलकयोपनिबद्धस्य काव्यस्यास्य कविकृतम् उल्लाघनाभिधं व्याख्यानं च वर्तते।

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the third volume, some character sketches of great literary savants responsible for Kannada renaissance during the first half of the twentieth century. These remarkable...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the second volume, episodes from the lives of remarkable exponents of classical music and dance, traditional storytellers, thespians, and connoisseurs; as well as his...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the first volume, episodes from the lives of great writers, poets, literary aficionados, exemplars of public life, literary scholars, noble-hearted common folk, advocates...

Evolution of Mahabharata and Other Writings on the Epic is the English translation of S R Ramaswamy's 1972 Kannada classic 'Mahabharatada Belavanige' along with seven of his essays on the great epic. It tells the riveting...

Shiva-Rama-Krishna is an English adaptation of Śatāvadhāni Dr. R Ganesh's popular lecture series on the three great...

Bharatilochana

ಮಹಾಮಾಹೇಶ್ವರ ಅಭಿನವಗುಪ್ತ ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ವಿದ್ಯಾವಲಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಮರೆಯಲಾಗದ ಹೆಸರು. ಮುಖ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಶೈವದರ್ಶನ ಮತ್ತು ಸೌಂದರ್ಯಮೀಮಾಂಸೆಗಳ ಪರಮಾಚಾರ್ಯನಾಗಿ  ಸಾವಿರ ವರ್ಷಗಳಿಂದ ಇವನು ಜ್ಞಾನಪ್ರಪಂಚವನ್ನು ಪ್ರಭಾವಿಸುತ್ತಲೇ ಇದ್ದಾನೆ. ಭರತಮುನಿಯ ನಾಟ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳಲು ಇವನೊಬ್ಬನೇ ನಮಗಿರುವ ಆಲಂಬನ. ಇದೇ ರೀತಿ ರಸಧ್ವನಿಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತವನ್ನು...

Vagarthavismayasvadah

“वागर्थविस्मयास्वादः” प्रमुखतया साहित्यशास्त्रतत्त्वानि विमृशति । अत्र सौन्दर्यर्यशास्त्रीयमूलतत्त्वानि यथा रस-ध्वनि-वक्रता-औचित्यादीनि सुनिपुणं परामृष्टानि प्रतिनवे चिकित्सकप्रज्ञाप्रकाशे। तदन्तर एव संस्कृतवाङ्मयस्य सामर्थ्यसमाविष्कारोऽपि विहितः। क्वचिदिव च्छन्दोमीमांसा च...

The Best of Hiriyanna

The Best of Hiriyanna is a collection of forty-eight essays by Prof. M. Hiriyanna that sheds new light on Sanskrit Literature, Indian...

Stories Behind Verses

Stories Behind Verses is a remarkable collection of over a hundred anecdotes, each of which captures a story behind the composition of a Sanskrit verse. Collected over several years from...