Mahābhārata and its Place in Indian Culture – Part 4

Vyāsa is said to have presented to Brahmā the topics discussed in the Mahābhārata thus – “In this work there are several secrets of the Vedas; my definitive siddhāntas on them; several details and descriptions of the Vedas compiled from the ṣaḍaṅgas and the Upaniṣads; matters pertaining to the three time periods – past, present, and future; unambiguous descriptions about the nature of the origin and destruction of birth, death, fear, and disease; the characteristics of the various varṇāśrama-dharmas; the vidhānas (methodology) of tapas and brahmacarya; the movement of the earth as well as the sun and moon; the varied movement of the planets, stars, and constellations; the duration of yugas; the adhyātma-jñāna (wisdom pertaining to the inner Self) that is propagated in the three Vedas – Ṛk, Yajus, and Sāma; nyaya-śāstra (the science of epistemology and reasoning) and vaidya-śāstra (the science of healing); the nature of wisdom; the Pāśupata-vrata; the categories of divinities as well as the boons they can render; tīrtha-kṣetras that help attain puṇya; streams, rivers, seas, oceans, mountains, and forests; cities; the kalpa-bhedas (the various time cycles); the skills in warfare; the method of travelling in the world; and that which has been hailed as the all-pervading vastu (brahman), that has been propounded in this treatise!”*

            In the scope of this essay there is no opportunity to discuss which of these aspects actually find a place in the extant text of the Mahābhārata, to debate as to which of the verses belong to the original text of the epic, or to speak about the various siddhāntas; it will suffice if we use this quote as a pointer to what the Indian people expected from the Mahābhārata epic.

            A primary characteristic of bhāratīya-samskṛti (Indian culture and heritage) is inclusive evolution, i.e. digesting anything new that appears and growing by including the new in itself; not to oppose (the new) and destroy it or destroy itself. Is the tattva (philosophy, essence, truth) one, or is it two, or is it zero – all these quarrels are recent. The tattva propagated by the Mahābhārata can be one, or it can be two; Śiva and Viṣṇu are both eminent in its vision; both are expressions of the universal consciousness. Therefore it has become a treatise worshipped by all, respected by all; it has become a means to bring everyone together. The yoga-śāstra that has been spoken about in the Mahābhārata presents is common to the Vedic culture and even to the sects of Jainism and Buddhism that are thought to be ‘opposed’ to Vaidika dharma. ‘Ahimsā,’ which the first step (of sāmānya-dharma) is the supreme dharma for all (these groups). Bauddha-dharma did not get destroyed in Bharata-khaṇḍa; it was distributed, dissolved, and it disappeared. Buddha became one among the daśāvatāras. Several Buddhist stories (first) appear in the Mahābhārata and in the Bṛhatkathā. In the Jaina purāṇas, we find several stories from the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, and the Bhāgavata. The primary reasons for this are partiality towards high quality, patience, intellect driven by dharma, deep examination of tattva. Swami Vivekananda told the westerners that we understand Christ better than you understand him! This is the conduct of one endowed with a magnanimous temperament that believes in going along with the people of the world and in being inclusive. This one land, Bharata-khaṇḍa, has constantly endeavoured to adhere to this in its local governance, in its laws and society, and in international relations. Even if one were to look at the Mahābhārata purely as a sāṃsārika (worldly) story, it is instructive in matters of relationships between children and parents, husband and wife, siblings, relatives, elders and youngsters, as well as teachers and students. It teaches us that friendship and love lead to sukha; hatred, jealousy, pettiness, and the like don't lead to sukha. In relations between husband and wife, if one of them, primarily the wife, can conduct herself with patience, that family will be filled with the ambrosia of love. Gāndhārī, Sāvitrī, Damayantī, and others have attained immortality for this reason alone. The love between the Pāṇḍava siblings is a high ideal for all times, all peoples. In the Mahābhārata, a terrible war was waged by the end of it. But all the wise people tried their best to avoid war and brokered for peace. When the mind was pure, everyone lived in sukha; the land was prosperous; the citizens lived in peace, without worries. When foolishness and evil gained in strength, when adharma raised its ugly head, everything was destroyed. However, that is also a sort of saṃskāra (refinement) for life; unless an iron rod is heated and then struck upon, it doesn't take the desired shape. It is said that in the end, in this manner, wisdom took birth in Duryodhana too. And in the hereafter, he too attained vīra-svarga just like the Pāṇḍavas.  

            Let difficulties arise or let there be sukha, let there be sorrow or overwhelming tragedy – whatever happens, should we adhere to dharma? Whatever happens, should we attain only sukha? Even by taking a loan – without any thought or repaying it – should one partake of ghee (i.e. enjoy worldly pleasures)? This is the worldly problem. Because ultimately everyone craves for sukha. Those who believe in paraloka (hereafter) – at all times, in all places – say that it is only through dharma that one reaches the Ultimate Good. But the path of dharma is a difficult one, it is one filled with obstacles and constraints. Mahābhārata leaves out these extremes and says, “Definitely, go ahead and attain artha and kāma (i.e. go on, fulfil your desires, find enjoyment, earn money, etc.) but let them be earned through the path of dharma; by this, one attains both iha (here) and para (hereafter)!” It doesn't ask us to discard all that is worldly and to be prepared to lift the cross on one’s back, walk ahead with it, be crucified on it, and die a ghastly death; nor does it tell us to forsake one’s wife and the child growing in her womb. Let us accept the difficulties or the comforts that come our way, to the extent that we obtain those experiences and to the amount allotted to us; but let us not make sukha as our [only] goal and try to attain it through unfair means; if everyone takes such a path the country will become a dacoit-infested den; there will be neither peace nor happiness; it will be filled with mistrust and fear; comfort without peace – what sort of comfort is that? That's what the Gītā asks, “Aśāntasya kutassukham?” (2.66) It is the Śānti-parva that is the biggest parva of the Mahābhārata (with 14,525 ślokas). 

            Our well-wishers speak with our welfare in mind – whether they declare with authority, inform with gentleness, or inspire by love and affection. Literature is something that people write for people, based on the life of people, sharing what they have seen, heard, and experienced. This is the reason any literature, from any part of the world, is something that aids in the cultural and emotional refinement of people; it is a catalyst for saṃskāra; it all depends on the calibre and worth of the person who puts it to use. That's the reason the ancient people made divisions based on the level of the person, the "adhikārī," just like how certain books are assigned as textbooks for students of a certain class in school; Vedas for some, śāstra for some, kāvya for some, and in that, poetry for some, prose for some, drama for some. The Mahābhārata contains vedārtha, śāstrārtha; it is also a kāvya – a mahākāvya, a huge literary work, a most ancient treatise that is offered the highest worship. Poets like Māgha, Bhāravi, Kālidāsa, and others who wrote mahakāvyas as well as [aestheticians like] Daṇḍi, Bhāmaha, and others who gave the characteristics of a mahakāvya are of a later period. During the period of the Mahābhārata, perhaps drama had not originated. But in one sense, it is a drama indeed. Because the Mahābhārata is an ocean of rasa, a treasure-trove of stories, and a universe of otherworldly people. From beginning to end, it is in a conversational format – the lifeline of a drama is dialogue, conversation. Although it is in a poetic meter, it is akin to prose; actual prose is seldom seen in the work; the language is simple, it is not complex like the prose of the Bhāgavata. Although it is called an itihāsa (historical treatise), it is filled with sweet kāvya-rasa and milk-like nīti. This is the vīra-kalaśa borne and carried forward by Draupadī – that one Draupadī, one Kṛṣṇa, one Vidura suffice to make Vyāsa, the Mahābhārata, and Indian literature immortal in the world. The composer of an epic such as the Mahābhārata lifts his arms in desperation and wails, “Oh! Nobody is listening to my words,” akin to an old man caught in family life; overcome by pain and sorrow, he shouts, “Dharmādarthaśca kāmaśca sa kimarthaṃ na sevyate?” This is the quintessence of bhāratīya-samskṛtiBhārata-sāvitrī.*

 

Concluded.

This is an English translation of Prof. A R Krishna Shastri’s Kannada article "ಮಹಾಭಾರತ ಮತ್ತು ಭಾರತೀಯ ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಅದರ ಸ್ಥಾನ" by Hari Ravikumar and Arjun Bharadwaj published in a serialized form. The original article appears as a part of the anthology "ಭಾಷಣಗಳು ಮತ್ತು ಲೇಖನಗಳು."
 

The original Kannada article is available for free online reading here. To read other works of Prof. Krishna Shastri, click here.

Author(s)

About:

Prof. A R Krishna Sastri was a journalist, scholar, polyglot, and a pioneer of the modern Kannada renaissance, who founded the literary journal Prabuddha Karnāṭaka. His Vacana-bhārata and Kathāmṛta are classics of Kannada literature while his Saṃskṛta-nāṭaka and Bankimacandra are of unrivalled scholarship.

Translator(s)

About:

Arjun is a writer, translator, engineer, and enjoys composing poems. He is well-versed in Sanskrit, Kannada, English, Greek, and German languages. His research interests lie in comparative aesthetics of classical Greek and Sanskrit literature. He has deep interest in the theatre arts and music. Arjun has (co-) translated the works of AR Krishna Shastri, DV Gundappa, Dr. SL Bhyrappa, Dr. SR Ramaswamy and Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh

About:

Hari is an author, translator, editor, designer, and violinist with a deep interest in philosophy, education pedagogy, literature, and films. He has (co-)written/translated and (co-)edited some forty books, mostly related to Indian culture.

Prekshaa Publications

Among the many contributions of ancient Indians to world thought, perhaps the most insightful is the realisation that ānanda (Bliss) is the ultimate goal of human existence. Since time immemorial, India has been a land steeped in contemplation about the nature of humans and the universe. The great ṛṣis (seers) and ṛṣikās (seeresses) embarked on critical analysis of subjective experience and...

One of the two great epics of India and arguably the most popular epic in the world, the Ramayana has enchanted generations of people not just in Greater India but the world over. In less than three hundred pages The Essential Ramayana captures all the poetic subtleties and noble values of the original and offers the great epic in an eminently readable form that will appeal to the learned and...

The Bhagavad-gītā isn’t merely a treatise on ultimate liberation. It is also a treatise on good living. Even the laity, which does not have its eye on mokṣa, can immensely benefit from the Gītā. It has the power to grant an attitude of reverence in worldly life, infuse enthusiasm in the execution of duty, impart fortitude in times of adversity, and offer solace to the heart when riddled by...

Indian Perspective of Truth and Beauty in Homer’s Epics is a unique work on the comparative study of the Greek Epics Iliad and Odyssey with the Indian Epics – Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. Homer, who laid the foundations for the classical tradition of the West, occupies a stature similar to that occupied by the seer-poets Vālmīki and Vyāsa, who are synonymous with the Indian culture. The author...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the sixth volume of reminiscences character sketches of prominent public figures, liberals, and social workers. These remarkable personages hailing from different corners of South India are from a period that spans from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. Written in Kannada in the 1970s, these memoirs go...

An Introduction to Hinduism based on Primary Sources

Authors: Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh, Hari Ravikumar

What is the philosophical basis for Sanātana-dharma, the ancient Indian way of life? What makes it the most inclusive and natural of all religio-philosophical systems in the world?

The Essential Sanātana-dharma serves as a handbook for anyone who wishes to grasp the...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fifth volume, episodes from the lives of traditional savants responsible for upholding the Vedic culture. These memorable characters lived a life of opulence amidst poverty— theirs  was the wealth of the soul, far beyond money and gold. These vidvāns hailed from different corners of the erstwhile Mysore Kingdom and lived in...

Padma Bhushan Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam represents the quintessence of Sage Bharata’s art and Bhārata, the country that gave birth to the peerless seer of the Nāṭya-veda. Padma’s erudition in various streams of Indic knowledge, mastery over many classical arts, deep understanding of the nuances of Indian culture, creative genius, and sublime vision bolstered by the vedāntic and nationalistic...

Bhārata has been a land of plenty in many ways. We have had a timeless tradition of the twofold principle of Brāhma (spirit of wisdom) and Kṣāttra (spirit of valour) nourishing and protecting this sacred land. The Hindu civilisation, rooted in Sanātana-dharma, has constantly been enriched by brāhma and safeguarded by kṣāttra.
The renowned Sanskrit poet and scholar, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R...

ಛಂದೋವಿವೇಕವು ವರ್ಣವೃತ್ತ, ಮಾತ್ರಾಜಾತಿ ಮತ್ತು ಕರ್ಷಣಜಾತಿ ಎಂದು ವಿಭಕ್ತವಾದ ಎಲ್ಲ ಬಗೆಯ ಛಂದಸ್ಸುಗಳನ್ನೂ ವಿವೇಚಿಸುವ ಪ್ರಬಂಧಗಳ ಸಂಕಲನ. ಲೇಖಕರ ದೀರ್ಘಕಾಲಿಕ ಆಲೋಚನೆಯ ಸಾರವನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡ ಈ ಹೊತ್ತಗೆ ಪ್ರಧಾನವಾಗಿ ಛಂದಸ್ಸಿನ ಸೌಂದರ್ಯವನ್ನು ಲಕ್ಷಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ತೌಲನಿಕ ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಶಾಸ್ತ್ರೀಯ ಅಧ್ಯಯನಗಳ ತೆಕ್ಕೆಗೆ ಬರುವ ಬರೆಹಗಳೂ ಇಲ್ಲಿವೆ. ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರಕಾರನಿಗಲ್ಲದೆ ಸಿದ್ಧಹಸ್ತನಾದ ಕವಿಗೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ಸ್ಫುರಿಸಬಲ್ಲ ಎಷ್ಟೋ ಹೊಳಹುಗಳು ಕೃತಿಯ ಮೌಲಿಕತೆಯನ್ನು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿಸಿವೆ. ಈ...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fourth volume, some character sketches of the Dewans of Mysore preceded by an account of the political framework of the State before Independence and followed by a review of the political conditions of the State after 1940. These remarkable leaders of Mysore lived in a period that spans from the mid-nineteenth century to the...

Bharatiya Kavya-mimamseya Hinnele is a monograph on Indian Aesthetics by Mahamahopadhyaya N. Ranganatha Sharma. The book discusses the history and significance of concepts pivotal to Indian literary theory. It is equally useful to the learned and the laity.

Sahitya-samhite is a collection of literary essays in Kannada. The book discusses aestheticians such as Ananda-vardhana and Rajashekhara; Sanskrit scholars such as Mena Ramakrishna Bhat, Sridhar Bhaskar Varnekar and K S Arjunwadkar; and Kannada litterateurs such as DVG, S L Bhyrappa and S R Ramaswamy. It has a foreword by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh.

The Mahābhārata is the greatest epic in the world both in magnitude and profundity. A veritable cultural compendium of Bhārata-varṣa, it is a product of the creative genius of Maharṣi Kṛṣṇa-dvaipāyana Vyāsa. The epic captures the experiential wisdom of our civilization and all subsequent literary, artistic, and philosophical creations are indebted to it. To read the Mahābhārata is to...

Shiva Rama Krishna

சிவன். ராமன். கிருஷ்ணன்.
இந்திய பாரம்பரியத்தின் முப்பெரும் கதாநாயகர்கள்.
உயர் இந்தியாவில் தலைமுறைகள் பல கடந்தும் கடவுளர்களாக போற்றப்பட்டு வழிகாட்டிகளாக விளங்குபவர்கள்.
மனித ஒற்றுமை நூற்றாண்டுகால பரிணாம வளர்ச்சியின் பரிமாணம்.
தனிநபர்களாகவும், குடும்ப உறுப்பினர்களாகவும், சமுதாய பிரஜைகளாகவும் நாம் அனைவரும் பரிமளிக்கிறோம்.
சிவன் தனிமனித அடையாளமாக அமைகிறான்....

ऋतुभिः सह कवयः सदैव सम्बद्धाः। विशिष्य संस्कृतकवयः। यथा हि ऋतवः प्रतिसंवत्सरं प्रतिनवतामावहन्ति मानवेषु तथैव ऋतुवर्णनान्यपि काव्यरसिकेषु कामपि विच्छित्तिमातन्वते। ऋतुकल्याणं हि सत्यमिदमेव हृदि कृत्वा प्रवृत्तम्। नगरजीवनस्य यान्त्रिकतां मान्त्रिकतां च ध्वनदिदं चम्पूकाव्यं गद्यपद्यमिश्रितमिति सुव्यक्तमेव। ऐदम्पूर्वतया प्रायः पुरीपरिसरप्रसृतानाम् ऋतूनां विलासोऽत्र प्रपञ्चितः। बेङ्गलूरुनामके...

The Art and Science of Avadhānam in Sanskrit is a definitive work on Sāhityāvadhānam, a form of Indian classical art based on multitasking, lateral thinking, and extempore versification. Dotted throughout with tasteful examples, it expounds in great detail on the theory and practice of this unique performing art. It is as much a handbook of performance as it is an anthology of well-turned...

This anthology is a revised edition of the author's 1978 classic. This series of essays, containing his original research in various fields, throws light on the socio-cultural landscape of Tamil Nadu spanning several centuries. These compelling episodes will appeal to scholars and laymen alike.
“When superstitious mediaevalists mislead the country about its judicial past, we have to...

The cultural history of a nation, unlike the customary mainstream history, has a larger time-frame and encompasses the timeless ethos of a society undergirding the course of events and vicissitudes. A major key to the understanding of a society’s unique character is an appreciation of the far-reaching contributions by outstanding personalities of certain periods – especially in the realms of...

Prekṣaṇīyam is an anthology of essays on Indian classical dance and theatre authored by multifaceted scholar and creative genius, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh. As a master of śāstra, a performing artiste (of the ancient art of Avadhānam), and a cultured rasika, he brings a unique, holistic perspective to every discussion. These essays deal with the philosophy, history, aesthetics, and practice of...

Yaugandharam

इदं किञ्चिद्यामलं काव्यं द्वयोः खण्डकाव्ययोः सङ्कलनरूपम्। रामानुरागानलं हि सीतापरित्यागाल्लक्ष्मणवियोगाच्च श्रीरामेणानुभूतं हृदयसङ्क्षोभं वर्णयति । वात्सल्यगोपालकं तु कदाचिद्भानूपरागसमये घटितं यशोदाश्रीकृष्णयोर्मेलनं वर्णयति । इदम्प्रथमतया संस्कृतसाहित्ये सम्पूर्णं काव्यं...

Vanitakavitotsavah

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Vaiphalyaphalam

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Nipunapraghunakam

इयं रचना दशसु रूपकेष्वन्यतमस्य भाणस्य निदर्शनतामुपैति। एकाङ्करूपकेऽस्मिन् शेखरकनामा चित्रोद्यमलेखकः केनापि हेतुना वियोगम् अनुभवतोश्चित्रलेखामिलिन्दकयोः समागमं सिसाधयिषुः कथामाकाशभाषणरूपेण निर्वहति।

Bharavatarastavah

अस्मिन् स्तोत्रकाव्ये भगवन्तं शिवं कविरभिष्टौति। वसन्ततिलकयोपनिबद्धस्य काव्यस्यास्य कविकृतम् उल्लाघनाभिधं व्याख्यानं च वर्तते।

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the third volume, some character sketches of great literary savants responsible for Kannada renaissance during the first half of the twentieth century. These remarkable...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the second volume, episodes from the lives of remarkable exponents of classical music and dance, traditional storytellers, thespians, and connoisseurs; as well as his...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the first volume, episodes from the lives of great writers, poets, literary aficionados, exemplars of public life, literary scholars, noble-hearted common folk, advocates...

Evolution of Mahabharata and Other Writings on the Epic is the English translation of S R Ramaswamy's 1972 Kannada classic 'Mahabharatada Belavanige' along with seven of his essays on the great epic. It tells the riveting...

Shiva-Rama-Krishna is an English adaptation of Śatāvadhāni Dr. R Ganesh's popular lecture series on the three great...

Bharatilochana

ಮಹಾಮಾಹೇಶ್ವರ ಅಭಿನವಗುಪ್ತ ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ವಿದ್ಯಾವಲಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಮರೆಯಲಾಗದ ಹೆಸರು. ಮುಖ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಶೈವದರ್ಶನ ಮತ್ತು ಸೌಂದರ್ಯಮೀಮಾಂಸೆಗಳ ಪರಮಾಚಾರ್ಯನಾಗಿ  ಸಾವಿರ ವರ್ಷಗಳಿಂದ ಇವನು ಜ್ಞಾನಪ್ರಪಂಚವನ್ನು ಪ್ರಭಾವಿಸುತ್ತಲೇ ಇದ್ದಾನೆ. ಭರತಮುನಿಯ ನಾಟ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳಲು ಇವನೊಬ್ಬನೇ ನಮಗಿರುವ ಆಲಂಬನ. ಇದೇ ರೀತಿ ರಸಧ್ವನಿಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತವನ್ನು...

Vagarthavismayasvadah

“वागर्थविस्मयास्वादः” प्रमुखतया साहित्यशास्त्रतत्त्वानि विमृशति । अत्र सौन्दर्यर्यशास्त्रीयमूलतत्त्वानि यथा रस-ध्वनि-वक्रता-औचित्यादीनि सुनिपुणं परामृष्टानि प्रतिनवे चिकित्सकप्रज्ञाप्रकाशे। तदन्तर एव संस्कृतवाङ्मयस्य सामर्थ्यसमाविष्कारोऽपि विहितः। क्वचिदिव च्छन्दोमीमांसा च...

The Best of Hiriyanna

The Best of Hiriyanna is a collection of forty-eight essays by Prof. M. Hiriyanna that sheds new light on Sanskrit Literature, Indian...

Stories Behind Verses

Stories Behind Verses is a remarkable collection of over a hundred anecdotes, each of which captures a story behind the composition of a Sanskrit verse. Collected over several years from...