Kṛṣṇamiśra
(11th Century CE)
It is likely that Kṛṣṇamiśra, the author of Prabodhacandrodaya lived in the second half of the eleventh century CE. We can say so with some certainty because of the following details that we learn from the prastāvanā of this play – Karṇa, the king of the Cedi kingdom is supposed to have defeated Kīrti-varmā by attacking his kingdom; he was, in turn, defeated by Gopāla, who also re-established Kīrti-varmā as the king in his kingdom; once this political unrest was settled, Kṛṣṇamiśra penned and staged the Prabodhacandrodaya, which is meant to evoke śānta-rasa – this was as per the request of King Kīrti-varmā. We know from historical records that Kīrti-varmā lived in about 1098 CE and Karṇa in about 1082 CE. It is hard to say who Gopaala was. Maheśvara, one of the commentators on the work says that he was the commander-in-chief of Kīrti-varmā’s forces; however, that is unlikely to be true. It is said that Gopāla was “sakala-sāmanta-cakra-cūḍāmaṇi … nīrājita-kamala[1]” and Kīrti-varmā was his sahaja-suhṛt, i.e., a ‘natural’ friend. Therefore, he must have been a king too. A popular legend says that Kṛṣṇamiśra was a yati, and he wrote the play to educate one of his students who was averse to vedānta but loved creative literature. Aśvaghoṣa too is supposed to have written a poem with a similar purpose, and he had said so himself (See page <>). However, it is hard to say if this is true of Kṛṣṇamiśra as well. We don’t know what works he had authored other than Prabodhacandrodaya.
The Prabodhacandrodaya is a nāṭaka in six acts –
A conversation between Kāma and Ratī (Viṣkambhaka). A son called Manas was born to Īśvara through Avidyā. He gave birth to Mahāmoha through Pravṛtti and Viveka through Nivṛtti. Manas followed the lead of Ahaṅkāra and put Īśvara in captivity. Mahāmoha and others tried their best to tighten the captivity, while Viveka and others worked against them, trying to liberate Manas. (Act 1). Mahāmoha, along with his people Dambha and Ahaṅkāra, were ruling the city of Kāśī. Cārvāka appears at the court of Mahāmoha and says that under the influence of Kali, everyone was giving up vedic path and adds that they were scared of Viṣṇubhakti. Immediately, Mahāmoha sends Kāma and Krodha to slay Viṣṇubhakti. Another report reaches him through Mada and Māna – elsewhere, Vairāgya and others had ensured that Dharma was not disturbed by Kāma, through bhedopāya; Śāntī and her mother Śraddhā, with the help of Viveka were trying to enable Dharma to reach Upaniṣad-devī. Enraged, Mahāmoha commands Kāma to capture Dharma, Krodha and Lobha to win over Śāntī and Mithyā-dṛṣṭi to arrest Śraddhā and leave them all with the Nāstikas. (Act 2). Śāntī goes around looking for her mother (sāttvika) Śraddhā but finds Tāmasa Śraddhā with the Jainas and Bauddhas and Rājasa Śraddhā with the Kāpālikas. They were all the kiṅkaras (servants) of Mahāmoha. From the conversations between the kiṅkaras, we learn that Sāttvika Śraddhā and Dharma had joined hands with Viṣṇubhakti, and had decided to reside in the hearts of the noble. The Kāpālika sends Mahābhāiravī Vidyā to capture Śraddhā and Dharma. (Act 3). Conversation between Śraddhā and Maitrī. Viṣṇubhakti liberates Dharma and Śraddhā, who were captured by Mahābhāiravī; she sends Śraddhā to Viveka. (Viṣkambhaka). King Viveka sets out to wage war; he sends Vastuvicāra to conquer Kāma, Kṣamā to defeat Krodhna, and Santoṣa to subdue Lobha; he reaches Kāśī and camps at the Ādikeśava Devālaya. (Act 4). In Cakratīrtha, Śraddhā narrates the details of the war to Viṣṇubhakti and Śāntī. Viveka is victorious in the battle, but Mahāmoha goes into hiding (Praveśaka). Manas, upon learning that his friends and relatives are dead, decides to end his life too; but Vaiyāsikī Sarasvatī consoles him. Vairāgya, who had just reached there, is welcomed by Manas; he is also happy to receive Matrī and others who were sent by Viṣṇubhakti; this gives him peace. (Act 5). Śāntī escorts Upaniṣad-devī and Śraddhā brings Viveka with him to Manas. Upaniṣad explains the way she suffered in various maṭhas and her union with Gītā; she explains that Puruṣa is no different from Parameśvara. As Puruṣa was performing dhyana, Prabodha comes and embraces him. This frees him from bandhana. A pleased Viṣṇubhakti appears there to bless them.
In sum, the subject matter of the play is Advaita-vedānta; the play also has passing references to the other darśanas as well; avaidika matas such as Jaina and Bauddha are the kiñkaras of Mahāmoha; the vaidika matas such as Nyāya, Yoga, and Mīmāṃsā are Viveka’s friends; the poet has included the bhakti tradition with this as well. In another sense, viṣṇu-bhakti, i.e., devotion to Bhagavān Viṣṇu predominates; it appears as an undercurrent throughout the play. It is because of viṣṇu-bhakti that all the obstacles are removed and the required sādhana-saṃpatti blossoms, which eventually leads to prabodha-candrodaya. It would not be out of place to surmise that the poet was a devotee of Viṣṇu. All other matas are of lesser importance; he has, in fact, criticised Jaina, Bauddha, and Kāpālika traditions in various ways. It is likely that these traditions were on their moral decline in his time. The play also hints that the vaidika tradition was also corrupt and was filled with dambha and ahaṅkāra – hypocrisy and ego; at places where these occur in the play, there is pungent humour. In fact, even those who have a preference for humour cannot criticise the play for the lack of vidūṣaka. The following are the words spoken by dambha –
सदनमुपगतोऽहं पूर्वमम्भोजयोनेः सपदि मुनिभिरुच्चैरासनेषूज्झितेषु ।
सशपथमनुनीय ब्रह्मणा गोमयाम्भ: परिमृजितनिजोरावाशु संवेशितोऽस्मि ॥
To be continued ...
The current series of articles is an enlarged adaption of Prof. A. R. Krishnasastri's Kannada treatise Saṃskṛta-nāṭaka. They are presented along with additional information and footnotes by Arjun Bharadwaj.
[1] The phrase is suggestive of the fact that Gopaala was not merely a commander-in-chief; he was the crest jewel of the subordinate kings.
