Aśvaghoṣa, Śūdraka

This article is part 9 of 20 in the series Poets on Poetics: Literature as Sanskrit Poets See It

Aśvaghoṣa clearly states that his work is principally a scripture. It is structured as a poem, yes, but that is only a veneer, a convenient pretence. Nevertheless, his work is appealing because of two reasons: one, he was a gifted poet; two, he chose the lofty story of the Buddha’s life as his subject. From this we understand that at times even purpose-driven compositions get the glitter of pure poetry. We should be wary of the fact that not all purpose-driven compositions are good.

               Aśvaghoṣa also says that his work contains the kernels of mokṣa. This is his personal belief, one to which the followers of Buddhism readily attest. Typically, the proponents of a particular doctrine proceed with an unshakeable belief in it. That does not mean the doctrine is correct. We must seek to validate it in the light of universal experience. Aesthetic experience, rasa, is the perfect avenue for such validation. But here we have a poet who is indifferent to rasa! Discerning readers will by now know where to place his work and how to view it.

               Let us try to understand the issue at the philosophical level. What is happening here? The poet, apparently, is trying to sacrifice—or underplay—beauty for truth. In a bid to welcome sat, he is shoving ānanda away. There need be no such selective behaviour. Truth is no different than beauty. That is the wisdom, cit, which one should exercise here. A poetic work undertaken without this wisdom stands more as a caution-sign than as a guidepost.   

               In the first verse quoted here, Aśvaghoṣa has used the word kāvya-dharma. This is a fine coinage. It has the potential to serve as a technical term in literary aesthetics. Dharma primarily means a quality that provides support and sustenance. What, then, is the quality that supports and sustains poetry? It is rasa. Although the meaning of rasa is clearly established, we cannot pin it down like a mathematical concept. This is because it is available only to experience. Dharma has wide-ranging connotations in society and philosophical lore. But it has an undivided appeal. In the same manner, rasa has dhvani, aucitya and vakrokti as its ingredients; but it has an indivisible influence. The term kāvya-dharma, therefore, includes the meanings of dhvani, aucitya and vakrokti.     

               If we attempt to view the four puruṣārthas vis-à-vis the foundational tenets of Indian aesthetics, the following connections emerge: dharma relates to aucitya, mokṣa to rasa, artha to vakrokti and kāma to dhvani. If dhvani and vakrokti transgress aucitya, rasa can never be realized. This is similar to artha and kāma transgressing dharma, thus precluding the possibility of mokṣa. It is thus clear that dharma can be perfectly mapped to aucitya. This is perhaps why Ānandavardhana thought of aucitya as the life-breath of rasa: prasiddhaucityabandhastu rasasyopaniṣat parā (Dhvanyāloka, 3.14 parikaraśloka).

               The term kāvya-dharma is significant in yet another respect. Let us consider it in contrast with loka-dharma. Although the two words are not contradictory to one another, they have clearly distinct meanings. Loka-dharma adheres to the physical rule of cause-and-effect, kārya-kāraṇa-sambandha. Kāvya-dharma, on the other hand, adheres to the aesthetic rule of cause-and-effect, vibhāva-anubhāva-sambandha. Consequently, the physical world is result-oriented; it is interested in the final products of various activities. Poetry is process-oriented; it is interested in the aesthetic steps that one climbs to reach the final goal of rasa. The former stems from self-interest; the latter from self-dissolution.

               All our worldly activities are directed towards some goal. In poetry the goal is not something to be attained by progressing in a particular path. It is to be realized at every step of the journey. The former is karma; the latter is more of a karma-yoga. Indeed, when karma transforms into yoga, the narrow blinkers of fear, sadness and delusion disappear. Only ānanda remains.

               By coining the word kāvya-dharma, Aśvaghoṣa has given us an eternally relevant technical term.

Śūdraka

Not many poets have presented the poetry of life as poignantly as Śūdraka. Two verses from the prologue of his social play Mṛcchakaṭika are of interest to us:

अवन्तिपुर्यां द्विजसार्थवाहो

        युवा दरिद्रः किल चारुदत्तः।

गुणानुरक्ता गणिका च यस्य

        वसन्तशोभेव वसन्तसेना॥ (१.६)

Cārudatta is a brāhmaṇa merchant put up in the town of Avanti. He is young and poor. Vasantasenā, a courtesan, is attracted to his virtues. Her charm is like the Spring’s splendour.

तयोरिदं सत्सुरतोत्सवाश्रयं

        नयप्रचारं व्यवहारदुष्टताम्।

खलस्वभावं भवितव्यतां तथा

        चकार सर्वं किल शूद्रको नृपः॥ (१.७)

In this play king Śūdraka has described the celebration of pure love between Cārudatta and Vasantasenā, the eminence of prudence, the cruelty of worldly affairs, the nature of wicked people and the ultimate course of fate.  

After Vālmīki and Vyāsa, only Śūdraka and Kālidāsa have outlined the form and substance of their work upfront. In the first verse quoted, Śūdraka has given us the names and qualities of his principal characters. According to the Nāṭyaśāstra, the protagonist of a social play, prakaraṇa, should be either a brāhmaṇa or a merchant. The treatise also expects the heroine to be a courtesan (18.47–52). By conforming to these rules, the poet has toed the line of śāstra. But he has not stopped there. Śūdraka’s genius has made the merchant destitute and the courtesan, a worshipper of virtues. This is a fine example of a master poet grasping the correct intent of śāstra and proceeding on the lines that it suggests.

       Lesser poets create a piece of work that bows obsequiously before śāstra. They can never come up with a composition that can serve as a model for rulebooks. All poets will do well to follow Śūdraka’s lead. In selecting topics, tropes and characters, they should strive to achieve originality, even while conforming to established literary rules. It is a matter of great reassurance that our poet’s stand has found an approver in Ānandavardhana.[1]

This is an English adaptation of Śatāvadhānī R. Ganesh's Kannada work, Saṃskṛtakavigaḻa Kāvyamīmāṃse. To read the original click here.

To be continued.



[1] सन्धिसन्ध्यङ्गघटनं रसाभिव्यक्त्यपेक्षया।

न तु केवलया शास्त्रस्थितिसम्पादनेच्छया॥ (ध्वन्यालोकः, ३.१२)

 

Author(s)

About:

Dr. Ganesh is a 'shatavadhani' and one of India’s foremost Sanskrit poets and scholars. He writes and lectures extensively on various subjects pertaining to India and Indian cultural heritage. He is a master of the ancient art of avadhana and is credited with reviving the art in Kannada. He is a recipient of the Badarayana-Vyasa Puraskar from the President of India for his contribution to the Sanskrit language.

Translator(s)

About:

Shashi Kiran B N holds a bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering and a master's degree in Sanskrit. His interests include Indian aesthetics, Hindu scriptures, Sanskrit and Kannada literature and philosophy.

Prekshaa Publications

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fourth volume, some character sketches of the Dewans of Mysore preceded by an account of the political framework of the State before Independence and followed by a review of the political conditions of the State after 1940. These remarkable leaders of Mysore lived in a period that spans from the mid-nineteenth century to the...

Bharatiya Kavya-mimamseya Hinnele is a monograph on Indian Aesthetics by Mahamahopadhyaya N. Ranganatha Sharma. The book discusses the history and significance of concepts pivotal to Indian literary theory. It is equally useful to the learned and the laity.

Sahitya-samhite is a collection of literary essays in Kannada. The book discusses aestheticians such as Ananda-vardhana and Rajashekhara; Sanskrit scholars such as Mena Ramakrishna Bhat, Sridhar Bhaskar Varnekar and K S Arjunwadkar; and Kannada litterateurs such as DVG, S L Bhyrappa and S R Ramaswamy. It has a foreword by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh.

The Mahābhārata is the greatest epic in the world both in magnitude and profundity. A veritable cultural compendium of Bhārata-varṣa, it is a product of the creative genius of Maharṣi Kṛṣṇa-dvaipāyana Vyāsa. The epic captures the experiential wisdom of our civilization and all subsequent literary, artistic, and philosophical creations are indebted to it. To read the Mahābhārata is to...

Shiva Rama Krishna

சிவன். ராமன். கிருஷ்ணன்.
இந்திய பாரம்பரியத்தின் முப்பெரும் கதாநாயகர்கள்.
உயர் இந்தியாவில் தலைமுறைகள் பல கடந்தும் கடவுளர்களாக போற்றப்பட்டு வழிகாட்டிகளாக விளங்குபவர்கள்.
மனித ஒற்றுமை நூற்றாண்டுகால பரிணாம வளர்ச்சியின் பரிமாணம்.
தனிநபர்களாகவும், குடும்ப உறுப்பினர்களாகவும், சமுதாய பிரஜைகளாகவும் நாம் அனைவரும் பரிமளிக்கிறோம்.
சிவன் தனிமனித அடையாளமாக அமைகிறான்....

ऋतुभिः सह कवयः सदैव सम्बद्धाः। विशिष्य संस्कृतकवयः। यथा हि ऋतवः प्रतिसंवत्सरं प्रतिनवतामावहन्ति मानवेषु तथैव ऋतुवर्णनान्यपि काव्यरसिकेषु कामपि विच्छित्तिमातन्वते। ऋतुकल्याणं हि सत्यमिदमेव हृदि कृत्वा प्रवृत्तम्। नगरजीवनस्य यान्त्रिकतां मान्त्रिकतां च ध्वनदिदं चम्पूकाव्यं गद्यपद्यमिश्रितमिति सुव्यक्तमेव। ऐदम्पूर्वतया प्रायः पुरीपरिसरप्रसृतानाम् ऋतूनां विलासोऽत्र प्रपञ्चितः। बेङ्गलूरुनामके...

The Art and Science of Avadhānam in Sanskrit is a definitive work on Sāhityāvadhānam, a form of Indian classical art based on multitasking, lateral thinking, and extempore versification. Dotted throughout with tasteful examples, it expounds in great detail on the theory and practice of this unique performing art. It is as much a handbook of performance as it is an anthology of well-turned...

This anthology is a revised edition of the author's 1978 classic. This series of essays, containing his original research in various fields, throws light on the socio-cultural landscape of Tamil Nadu spanning several centuries. These compelling episodes will appeal to scholars and laymen alike.
“When superstitious mediaevalists mislead the country about its judicial past, we have to...

The cultural history of a nation, unlike the customary mainstream history, has a larger time-frame and encompasses the timeless ethos of a society undergirding the course of events and vicissitudes. A major key to the understanding of a society’s unique character is an appreciation of the far-reaching contributions by outstanding personalities of certain periods – especially in the realms of...

Prekṣaṇīyam is an anthology of essays on Indian classical dance and theatre authored by multifaceted scholar and creative genius, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh. As a master of śāstra, a performing artiste (of the ancient art of Avadhānam), and a cultured rasika, he brings a unique, holistic perspective to every discussion. These essays deal with the philosophy, history, aesthetics, and practice of...

Yaugandharam

इदं किञ्चिद्यामलं काव्यं द्वयोः खण्डकाव्ययोः सङ्कलनरूपम्। रामानुरागानलं हि सीतापरित्यागाल्लक्ष्मणवियोगाच्च श्रीरामेणानुभूतं हृदयसङ्क्षोभं वर्णयति । वात्सल्यगोपालकं तु कदाचिद्भानूपरागसमये घटितं यशोदाश्रीकृष्णयोर्मेलनं वर्णयति । इदम्प्रथमतया संस्कृतसाहित्ये सम्पूर्णं काव्यं...

Vanitakavitotsavah

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Vaiphalyaphalam

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Nipunapraghunakam

इयं रचना दशसु रूपकेष्वन्यतमस्य भाणस्य निदर्शनतामुपैति। एकाङ्करूपकेऽस्मिन् शेखरकनामा चित्रोद्यमलेखकः केनापि हेतुना वियोगम् अनुभवतोश्चित्रलेखामिलिन्दकयोः समागमं सिसाधयिषुः कथामाकाशभाषणरूपेण निर्वहति।

Bharavatarastavah

अस्मिन् स्तोत्रकाव्ये भगवन्तं शिवं कविरभिष्टौति। वसन्ततिलकयोपनिबद्धस्य काव्यस्यास्य कविकृतम् उल्लाघनाभिधं व्याख्यानं च वर्तते।

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the third volume, some character sketches of great literary savants responsible for Kannada renaissance during the first half of the twentieth century. These remarkable...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the second volume, episodes from the lives of remarkable exponents of classical music and dance, traditional storytellers, thespians, and connoisseurs; as well as his...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the first volume, episodes from the lives of great writers, poets, literary aficionados, exemplars of public life, literary scholars, noble-hearted common folk, advocates...

Evolution of Mahabharata and Other Writings on the Epic is the English translation of S R Ramaswamy's 1972 Kannada classic 'Mahabharatada Belavanige' along with seven of his essays on the great epic. It tells the riveting...

Shiva-Rama-Krishna is an English adaptation of Śatāvadhāni Dr. R Ganesh's popular lecture series on the three great...

Bharatilochana

ಮಹಾಮಾಹೇಶ್ವರ ಅಭಿನವಗುಪ್ತ ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ವಿದ್ಯಾವಲಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಮರೆಯಲಾಗದ ಹೆಸರು. ಮುಖ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಶೈವದರ್ಶನ ಮತ್ತು ಸೌಂದರ್ಯಮೀಮಾಂಸೆಗಳ ಪರಮಾಚಾರ್ಯನಾಗಿ  ಸಾವಿರ ವರ್ಷಗಳಿಂದ ಇವನು ಜ್ಞಾನಪ್ರಪಂಚವನ್ನು ಪ್ರಭಾವಿಸುತ್ತಲೇ ಇದ್ದಾನೆ. ಭರತಮುನಿಯ ನಾಟ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳಲು ಇವನೊಬ್ಬನೇ ನಮಗಿರುವ ಆಲಂಬನ. ಇದೇ ರೀತಿ ರಸಧ್ವನಿಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತವನ್ನು...

Vagarthavismayasvadah

“वागर्थविस्मयास्वादः” प्रमुखतया साहित्यशास्त्रतत्त्वानि विमृशति । अत्र सौन्दर्यर्यशास्त्रीयमूलतत्त्वानि यथा रस-ध्वनि-वक्रता-औचित्यादीनि सुनिपुणं परामृष्टानि प्रतिनवे चिकित्सकप्रज्ञाप्रकाशे। तदन्तर एव संस्कृतवाङ्मयस्य सामर्थ्यसमाविष्कारोऽपि विहितः। क्वचिदिव च्छन्दोमीमांसा च...

The Best of Hiriyanna

The Best of Hiriyanna is a collection of forty-eight essays by Prof. M. Hiriyanna that sheds new light on Sanskrit Literature, Indian...

Stories Behind Verses

Stories Behind Verses is a remarkable collection of over a hundred anecdotes, each of which captures a story behind the composition of a Sanskrit verse. Collected over several years from...