Śīlāditya Harṣavardhana

This article is part 21 of 30 in the series Poets on Poetics: Literature as Sanskrit Poets See It

Harṣavardhana has made a mark in the annals of Sanskrit literature with his three plays: Priyadarśikā, Ratnāvalī and Nāgānanda. Interestingly, the prologues of these plays are largely similar. Although there is no discussion here significant to literary aesthetics, we do find a verse that lays down certain fundamental tenets:

श्रीहर्षो निपुणः कविः परिषदप्येषा गुणग्राहिणी

लोके हारि च वत्सराजचरितं[1] नाट्ये च दक्षा वयम्।

वस्त्वेकैकमपीह वाञ्छितफलप्राप्तेः पदं किं पुन-

र्मद्भाग्योपचयात्समुदितः सर्वो गुणानां गणः॥ (प्रियदर्शिका, 1.3)

Śrīharṣa is a talented poet, this assembly of discerning connoisseurs unerringly grasps poetic qualities, Vatsarāja’s story is immensely popular, and we are adept at staging plays. Each of these suffices to bring the desired fruit. What could be better – owing to my good fortune, all these ingredients have now come together!

Harṣa here enlists the elements essential to produce, savour and propagate art. The primary cause of a play is the theme; the instrumental cause is the poet. The poet should be skilled enough to narrate and describe various emotions with vigour. A work of art thus takes shape, and the combined efforts of actors, singers, stage managers, et al take it forward. All these culminate and find fruition in the joy that connoisseurs experience.

Poets such as Kālidāsa had previously counted the poet and connoisseur among the essentials of art celebration, but had not specifically taken note of actors, stage managers and suchlike people who come together to stage plays. The monarch in Harṣa knew well the importance of ‘conveyors’ – people who bridge the producers and consumers. If he did not possess such knowledge, the production machinery in his State would have taken a hit. To build on the idea of a kingdom, it is evident that the plans and measures a king undertakes to secure the welfare of his empire reaches the subjects only through the concerted efforts of ministers, administrators and vassals. Harṣa deserves credit for drawing much-needed attention to the propagators of art.  

Śrīharṣa was skilled at writing plays. He had an impeccable knack for turning poetic lines into visually appealing dramatic scenes. Among the various stage techniques he has employed, the ‘garbhāṅka’ (‘play within a play’) is arguably the best. Harṣa has used this technique—which is not mentioned even in Nāṭyaśāstra—to give insights into topics vital to our present discussion: drama, literature and aesthetics.

In the garbhāṅka of the play Priyadarśikā (Act III) we witness Udayana and Vāsavadattā falling in love by their mutual interest in the lute – Udayana being the teacher and his beloved, the student. We learn that the author of this garbhāṅka is Sāṅkṛtyāyanī, an ascetic who helps Udayana in his romantic escapades. The guileless Vāsavadattā, oblivious to Sāṅkṛtyāyanī’s schemes, makes arrangements to have her play staged. In the performance, Udayana’s role was to be played by Manoramā, Priyadarśikā’s friend and Vāsavadattā’s maid. Priyadarśikā herself was to enact Vāsavadattā. Thanks to the web of trickery weaved by Udayana, Manoramā and Sāṅkṛtyāyanī, the king succeeds in playing himself in the play and thereby getting closer to Priyadarśikā’s heart. When the king, prompted by impulse, goes beyond the script and lapses into impromptu sweet-talk to lure Priyadarśikā, the innocent queen Vāsavadattā who was watching the play feels awkward and protests that she and her beloved had never behaved so indecorously. The all-knowing Sāṅkṛtyāyanī calms her by explaining away the king’s excesses. In this way, as the play within a play unfolds, another ‘drama’ opens up before our eyes!

The technique of garbhāṅka provides room for three levels of abhinaya. It appears that there is absolutely no one who sees this play as a play. Vāsavadattā swims against the waves of confusion, discomfiture and anger, while Sāṅkṛtyāyanī sails on the ship of all-knowing poise, determined to lead the situation ashore. Udayana is utterly delighted to outperform his ‘character’ and to milk the God-given opportunity to the fullest. Priyadarśikā, on the other hand, strives to play her part well, being wary of the queen’s watchful eye all the time. Her gut tells her that Udayana is himself playing his role, thus making her happy and shy at the same time.

Evidently, no one among the actors, producers and onlookers of the play is at ease. Nonetheless, the connoisseurs reading or viewing Priyadarśikā are in for a treat. Western dramatic theory posits that the performance of a play involves seeming internal contradictions. It is a proof of Śrīharṣa’s genius that though such contradictions fill this play, they find reconciliation ultimately.

Let us now observe a few finer details. When Udayana enters the stage instead of Manoramā, Vāsavadattā, not knowing she is being tricked, stands up involuntarily and exclaims: ‘jayatu jayatvāryaputraḥ’ – ‘victory to my husband!’ This is a peculiar instance of a person being confounded by truth. Had Manoramā played Udayana and had Vāsavadattā reacted in the same manner then, that would count as appreciation by a connoisseur of the actor’s skill. Were she to enjoy Udayana’s acting as one performed by an artist playing her husband, that would still count as the natural response of a connoisseur. Udayana then would not count as an actor. If Vāsavadattā were to mistake Manoramā for her husband and were she to offer her respects reserved for Udayana, that would be a mark of Manoramā’s skill at acting and the queen’s inability to rise beyond reality.[2] Vāsavadattā then would be far from an ideal connoisseur. On the other hand, had she recognized her husband absorbed in playing his role, that would be a natural, everyday event.

In the current situation, the queen, going beyond all the possibilities we have discussed, sees Udayana as an actor and yet regards him as her husband and ends up on her feet, eager to show respect. This remarkable scene throws a challenge to scholars of cognition, to ascertain which form of understanding this is – decisive (niścaya), confounded (saṃśaya), or based on similarity (sādṛśya). Indeed, we see an admixture of all these here. Experts of logic should find a solution to this riddle, which is much beyond ordinary aestheticians! Ultimately, connoisseurs are sure to have a hearty spell of laughter, awash as they are with hāsya-rasa.

In this manner, Śrīharṣa points at the meta-worldly nature of art by picturing various kinds of responses and reactions. It would not be off the mark to surmise that the playwright has provided abundant fodder to the theoreticians who followed him such as Lollaṭa, Śaṅkuka and Bhaṭṭa-nāyaka.

Let us get back to the scene. Upon seeing the perplexed Vāsavadattā, Sāṅkṛtyāyanī smilingly says: ‘My dear queen, don’t be all tensed up. This is only a play.’ When Udayana goes overboard in romancing with Priyadarśikā playing the role of Vāsavadattā, the queen takes offence and complains to Sāṅkṛtyāyanī: ‘bhagavatyā adhikaṃ kalpitaṃ kāvyam. na tasmin kāle āryaputreṇa ekāsane sahopaviṣṭā’ – ‘Revered madam, you’ve gone too far with the story! I didn’t share a seat with my husband in that situation.’ The amused ascetic replies: ‘āyuṣmati, īdṛśameva kāvyaṃ bhaviṣyati’ – ‘My child, this is how a play is!’ This statement is hilarious in the play’s context but is quite profound, for it throws light on the nature of poetic composition.

Vāsavadattā does not appear as a refined connoisseur throughout viewing the garbhāṅka. Unable to suspend personal thoughts and feelings, she sees an actual reflection of the world in art. And owing to this reason, she does not experience rasa. We see in her a typical layperson who has not a clue about art experience. Such people, regardless of their learning and worldly accomplishments, count as ignoramuses in art. The liberty that poets and artists take with their themes, despite following the codes of propriety, does not appeal to them; they find it distasteful. This is the reason why uninitiated people typically find art vulgar, dangerous and unscrupulous.

It is impossible to create rasa without taking creative liberties – of course adhering to aesthetic propriety. More often than not, things that appear repulsive in the real world are made attractive and agreeable in art. Indian aestheticians have drawn our attention to this ‘transformation of nature in art.’[3]

In this way, Sāṅkṛtyāyanī’s innocuous words uttered to put the queen at ease help poets and connoisseurs understand the secret of art. What’s more, these words ring true not only with profound works of art but also with commercial movies and books. We often hear movie stars remark that commercial films take ample liberty with reality. They might not be aware of the nuances of aesthetics we have elucidated thus far; they will certainly know the nature of art through personal experience.

Harṣavardhana’s insights into art are eminently worth noting.  



[1] Nāgānanda (1.3) has ‘bodhi-sattva-caritam’ in the place of ‘vatsa-rāja-caritam.’

[2] Technically termed deśa-kāla-viśeṣāveśa, this is one among the deterrents of rasa.

[3] अपारे काव्यसंसारे कविरेकः प्रजापतिः।

यथास्मै रोचते विश्वं तथेदं परिवर्तते॥ (ध्वन्यालोकः, ३.४२ परिकरश्लोकः)

यद्यत्रास्ति न तत्रास्य कवेर्वर्णनमर्हति।

यन्नासम्भवि तत्रास्य तद्वर्ण्यं सौमनस्यदम्॥ (भट्टतौतस्य; अभिनवभारती, सं. ३, पृ. ६९)

अस्तु वस्तुषु मा वा भूत्कविवाचि रसः स्थितः॥ (काव्यमीमांसा, नवमोऽध्यायः, पृ. ४६)

विनोत्कर्षापकर्षाभ्यां स्वदन्तेऽर्था न जातुचित्।

तदर्थमेव कवयोऽलङ्कारान् पर्युपासते॥ (व्यक्तिविवेकः, २.१४)

To be continued.

 

Author(s)

About:

Dr. Ganesh is a 'shatavadhani' and one of India’s foremost Sanskrit poets and scholars. He writes and lectures extensively on various subjects pertaining to India and Indian cultural heritage. He is a master of the ancient art of avadhana and is credited with reviving the art in Kannada. He is a recipient of the Badarayana-Vyasa Puraskar from the President of India for his contribution to the Sanskrit language.

Translator(s)

About:

Shashi Kiran B N holds a bachelor’s degree in Mechanical Engineering and a master's degree in Sanskrit. His interests include Indian aesthetics, Hindu scriptures, Sanskrit and Kannada literature and philosophy.

Prekshaa Publications

Among the many contributions of ancient Indians to world thought, perhaps the most insightful is the realisation that ānanda (Bliss) is the ultimate goal of human existence. Since time immemorial, India has been a land steeped in contemplation about the nature of humans and the universe. The great ṛṣis (seers) and ṛṣikās (seeresses) embarked on critical analysis of subjective experience and...

One of the two great epics of India and arguably the most popular epic in the world, the Ramayana has enchanted generations of people not just in Greater India but the world over. In less than three hundred pages The Essential Ramayana captures all the poetic subtleties and noble values of the original and offers the great epic in an eminently readable form that will appeal to the learned and...

The Bhagavad-gītā isn’t merely a treatise on ultimate liberation. It is also a treatise on good living. Even the laity, which does not have its eye on mokṣa, can immensely benefit from the Gītā. It has the power to grant an attitude of reverence in worldly life, infuse enthusiasm in the execution of duty, impart fortitude in times of adversity, and offer solace to the heart when riddled by...

Indian Perspective of Truth and Beauty in Homer’s Epics is a unique work on the comparative study of the Greek Epics Iliad and Odyssey with the Indian Epics – Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata. Homer, who laid the foundations for the classical tradition of the West, occupies a stature similar to that occupied by the seer-poets Vālmīki and Vyāsa, who are synonymous with the Indian culture. The author...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the sixth volume of reminiscences character sketches of prominent public figures, liberals, and social workers. These remarkable personages hailing from different corners of South India are from a period that spans from the late nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth century. Written in Kannada in the 1970s, these memoirs go...

An Introduction to Hinduism based on Primary Sources

Authors: Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh, Hari Ravikumar

What is the philosophical basis for Sanātana-dharma, the ancient Indian way of life? What makes it the most inclusive and natural of all religio-philosophical systems in the world?

The Essential Sanātana-dharma serves as a handbook for anyone who wishes to grasp the...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fifth volume, episodes from the lives of traditional savants responsible for upholding the Vedic culture. These memorable characters lived a life of opulence amidst poverty— theirs  was the wealth of the soul, far beyond money and gold. These vidvāns hailed from different corners of the erstwhile Mysore Kingdom and lived in...

Padma Bhushan Dr. Padma Subrahmanyam represents the quintessence of Sage Bharata’s art and Bhārata, the country that gave birth to the peerless seer of the Nāṭya-veda. Padma’s erudition in various streams of Indic knowledge, mastery over many classical arts, deep understanding of the nuances of Indian culture, creative genius, and sublime vision bolstered by the vedāntic and nationalistic...

Bhārata has been a land of plenty in many ways. We have had a timeless tradition of the twofold principle of Brāhma (spirit of wisdom) and Kṣāttra (spirit of valour) nourishing and protecting this sacred land. The Hindu civilisation, rooted in Sanātana-dharma, has constantly been enriched by brāhma and safeguarded by kṣāttra.
The renowned Sanskrit poet and scholar, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R...

ಛಂದೋವಿವೇಕವು ವರ್ಣವೃತ್ತ, ಮಾತ್ರಾಜಾತಿ ಮತ್ತು ಕರ್ಷಣಜಾತಿ ಎಂದು ವಿಭಕ್ತವಾದ ಎಲ್ಲ ಬಗೆಯ ಛಂದಸ್ಸುಗಳನ್ನೂ ವಿವೇಚಿಸುವ ಪ್ರಬಂಧಗಳ ಸಂಕಲನ. ಲೇಖಕರ ದೀರ್ಘಕಾಲಿಕ ಆಲೋಚನೆಯ ಸಾರವನ್ನು ಒಳಗೊಂಡ ಈ ಹೊತ್ತಗೆ ಪ್ರಧಾನವಾಗಿ ಛಂದಸ್ಸಿನ ಸೌಂದರ್ಯವನ್ನು ಲಕ್ಷಿಸುತ್ತದೆ. ತೌಲನಿಕ ವಿಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆ ಮತ್ತು ಅಂತಃಶಾಸ್ತ್ರೀಯ ಅಧ್ಯಯನಗಳ ತೆಕ್ಕೆಗೆ ಬರುವ ಬರೆಹಗಳೂ ಇಲ್ಲಿವೆ. ಶಾಸ್ತ್ರಕಾರನಿಗಲ್ಲದೆ ಸಿದ್ಧಹಸ್ತನಾದ ಕವಿಗೆ ಮಾತ್ರ ಸ್ಫುರಿಸಬಲ್ಲ ಎಷ್ಟೋ ಹೊಳಹುಗಳು ಕೃತಿಯ ಮೌಲಿಕತೆಯನ್ನು ಹೆಚ್ಚಿಸಿವೆ. ಈ...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the fourth volume, some character sketches of the Dewans of Mysore preceded by an account of the political framework of the State before Independence and followed by a review of the political conditions of the State after 1940. These remarkable leaders of Mysore lived in a period that spans from the mid-nineteenth century to the...

Bharatiya Kavya-mimamseya Hinnele is a monograph on Indian Aesthetics by Mahamahopadhyaya N. Ranganatha Sharma. The book discusses the history and significance of concepts pivotal to Indian literary theory. It is equally useful to the learned and the laity.

Sahitya-samhite is a collection of literary essays in Kannada. The book discusses aestheticians such as Ananda-vardhana and Rajashekhara; Sanskrit scholars such as Mena Ramakrishna Bhat, Sridhar Bhaskar Varnekar and K S Arjunwadkar; and Kannada litterateurs such as DVG, S L Bhyrappa and S R Ramaswamy. It has a foreword by Shatavadhani Dr. R Ganesh.

The Mahābhārata is the greatest epic in the world both in magnitude and profundity. A veritable cultural compendium of Bhārata-varṣa, it is a product of the creative genius of Maharṣi Kṛṣṇa-dvaipāyana Vyāsa. The epic captures the experiential wisdom of our civilization and all subsequent literary, artistic, and philosophical creations are indebted to it. To read the Mahābhārata is to...

Shiva Rama Krishna

சிவன். ராமன். கிருஷ்ணன்.
இந்திய பாரம்பரியத்தின் முப்பெரும் கதாநாயகர்கள்.
உயர் இந்தியாவில் தலைமுறைகள் பல கடந்தும் கடவுளர்களாக போற்றப்பட்டு வழிகாட்டிகளாக விளங்குபவர்கள்.
மனித ஒற்றுமை நூற்றாண்டுகால பரிணாம வளர்ச்சியின் பரிமாணம்.
தனிநபர்களாகவும், குடும்ப உறுப்பினர்களாகவும், சமுதாய பிரஜைகளாகவும் நாம் அனைவரும் பரிமளிக்கிறோம்.
சிவன் தனிமனித அடையாளமாக அமைகிறான்....

ऋतुभिः सह कवयः सदैव सम्बद्धाः। विशिष्य संस्कृतकवयः। यथा हि ऋतवः प्रतिसंवत्सरं प्रतिनवतामावहन्ति मानवेषु तथैव ऋतुवर्णनान्यपि काव्यरसिकेषु कामपि विच्छित्तिमातन्वते। ऋतुकल्याणं हि सत्यमिदमेव हृदि कृत्वा प्रवृत्तम्। नगरजीवनस्य यान्त्रिकतां मान्त्रिकतां च ध्वनदिदं चम्पूकाव्यं गद्यपद्यमिश्रितमिति सुव्यक्तमेव। ऐदम्पूर्वतया प्रायः पुरीपरिसरप्रसृतानाम् ऋतूनां विलासोऽत्र प्रपञ्चितः। बेङ्गलूरुनामके...

The Art and Science of Avadhānam in Sanskrit is a definitive work on Sāhityāvadhānam, a form of Indian classical art based on multitasking, lateral thinking, and extempore versification. Dotted throughout with tasteful examples, it expounds in great detail on the theory and practice of this unique performing art. It is as much a handbook of performance as it is an anthology of well-turned...

This anthology is a revised edition of the author's 1978 classic. This series of essays, containing his original research in various fields, throws light on the socio-cultural landscape of Tamil Nadu spanning several centuries. These compelling episodes will appeal to scholars and laymen alike.
“When superstitious mediaevalists mislead the country about its judicial past, we have to...

The cultural history of a nation, unlike the customary mainstream history, has a larger time-frame and encompasses the timeless ethos of a society undergirding the course of events and vicissitudes. A major key to the understanding of a society’s unique character is an appreciation of the far-reaching contributions by outstanding personalities of certain periods – especially in the realms of...

Prekṣaṇīyam is an anthology of essays on Indian classical dance and theatre authored by multifaceted scholar and creative genius, Śatāvadhānī Dr. R Ganesh. As a master of śāstra, a performing artiste (of the ancient art of Avadhānam), and a cultured rasika, he brings a unique, holistic perspective to every discussion. These essays deal with the philosophy, history, aesthetics, and practice of...

Yaugandharam

इदं किञ्चिद्यामलं काव्यं द्वयोः खण्डकाव्ययोः सङ्कलनरूपम्। रामानुरागानलं हि सीतापरित्यागाल्लक्ष्मणवियोगाच्च श्रीरामेणानुभूतं हृदयसङ्क्षोभं वर्णयति । वात्सल्यगोपालकं तु कदाचिद्भानूपरागसमये घटितं यशोदाश्रीकृष्णयोर्मेलनं वर्णयति । इदम्प्रथमतया संस्कृतसाहित्ये सम्पूर्णं काव्यं...

Vanitakavitotsavah

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Vaiphalyaphalam

इदं खण्डकाव्यमान्तं मालिनीछन्दसोपनिबद्धं विलसति। मेनकाविश्वामित्रयोः समागमः, तत्फलतया शकुन्तलाया जननम्, मातापितृभ्यां त्यक्तस्य शिशोः कण्वमहर्षिणा परिपालनं चेति काव्यस्यास्येतिवृत्तसङ्क्षेपः।

Nipunapraghunakam

इयं रचना दशसु रूपकेष्वन्यतमस्य भाणस्य निदर्शनतामुपैति। एकाङ्करूपकेऽस्मिन् शेखरकनामा चित्रोद्यमलेखकः केनापि हेतुना वियोगम् अनुभवतोश्चित्रलेखामिलिन्दकयोः समागमं सिसाधयिषुः कथामाकाशभाषणरूपेण निर्वहति।

Bharavatarastavah

अस्मिन् स्तोत्रकाव्ये भगवन्तं शिवं कविरभिष्टौति। वसन्ततिलकयोपनिबद्धस्य काव्यस्यास्य कविकृतम् उल्लाघनाभिधं व्याख्यानं च वर्तते।

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the third volume, some character sketches of great literary savants responsible for Kannada renaissance during the first half of the twentieth century. These remarkable...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the second volume, episodes from the lives of remarkable exponents of classical music and dance, traditional storytellers, thespians, and connoisseurs; as well as his...

Karnataka’s celebrated polymath, D V Gundappa brings together in the first volume, episodes from the lives of great writers, poets, literary aficionados, exemplars of public life, literary scholars, noble-hearted common folk, advocates...

Evolution of Mahabharata and Other Writings on the Epic is the English translation of S R Ramaswamy's 1972 Kannada classic 'Mahabharatada Belavanige' along with seven of his essays on the great epic. It tells the riveting...

Shiva-Rama-Krishna is an English adaptation of Śatāvadhāni Dr. R Ganesh's popular lecture series on the three great...

Bharatilochana

ಮಹಾಮಾಹೇಶ್ವರ ಅಭಿನವಗುಪ್ತ ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ವಿದ್ಯಾವಲಯದಲ್ಲಿ ಮರೆಯಲಾಗದ ಹೆಸರು. ಮುಖ್ಯವಾಗಿ ಶೈವದರ್ಶನ ಮತ್ತು ಸೌಂದರ್ಯಮೀಮಾಂಸೆಗಳ ಪರಮಾಚಾರ್ಯನಾಗಿ  ಸಾವಿರ ವರ್ಷಗಳಿಂದ ಇವನು ಜ್ಞಾನಪ್ರಪಂಚವನ್ನು ಪ್ರಭಾವಿಸುತ್ತಲೇ ಇದ್ದಾನೆ. ಭರತಮುನಿಯ ನಾಟ್ಯಶಾಸ್ತ್ರವನ್ನು ಅರ್ಥಮಾಡಿಕೊಳ್ಳಲು ಇವನೊಬ್ಬನೇ ನಮಗಿರುವ ಆಲಂಬನ. ಇದೇ ರೀತಿ ರಸಧ್ವನಿಸಿದ್ಧಾಂತವನ್ನು...

Vagarthavismayasvadah

“वागर्थविस्मयास्वादः” प्रमुखतया साहित्यशास्त्रतत्त्वानि विमृशति । अत्र सौन्दर्यर्यशास्त्रीयमूलतत्त्वानि यथा रस-ध्वनि-वक्रता-औचित्यादीनि सुनिपुणं परामृष्टानि प्रतिनवे चिकित्सकप्रज्ञाप्रकाशे। तदन्तर एव संस्कृतवाङ्मयस्य सामर्थ्यसमाविष्कारोऽपि विहितः। क्वचिदिव च्छन्दोमीमांसा च...

The Best of Hiriyanna

The Best of Hiriyanna is a collection of forty-eight essays by Prof. M. Hiriyanna that sheds new light on Sanskrit Literature, Indian...

Stories Behind Verses

Stories Behind Verses is a remarkable collection of over a hundred anecdotes, each of which captures a story behind the composition of a Sanskrit verse. Collected over several years from...